With great regularity, those around Jesus understood his figurative language as literal: John 2:19,20; 3:3,4; 4:10,11,32,33; 6:41,42, etc; John 7:34,35; 8:56,57; 9:39,40; 10:30-33; 11:11-13.

Tying these thoughts together is a Greek word used three times in John’s Gospel: “paroimia”, which is a different way of saying “parable” or “proverb” than the Greek word “parabole” used 48 times in the other three gospels. Consider how John uses this word: (1) “Jesus used this figure of speech, but they did not understand what he was telling them” (John 10:6); (2,3) “Though I have been speaking figuratively, a time is coming when I will no longer use this kind of language but will tell you plainly about my Father… Then Jesus’ disciples said, ‘Now you are speaking clearly and without figures of speech’ ” (John 16:25,29).

And, of course, even today there are those who misunderstand or even wrest Jesus’ words to “prove” their own false doctrines, chief of which is the Trinity. So these regular occurrences of misunderstanding in the Gospel of John indicate plainly when a literal interpretation is “out of order”. To recognize this pattern is very useful in counteracting several false teachings that derive their support primarily from John’s Gospel.

The fourth and most spiritual of the gospels. The first three gospels portray mainly what Jesus did and how He taught, but the Gospel of John is different. It moves beyond the obvious facts of Jesus’ life to deeper, more profound meanings. Among the gospels, therefore, John offers a unique portrait of Christ that has been cherished by believers through the centuries.   John concentrates on Jesus as He taught in private, while the other three gospels record a more public method of address. The other gospels portray the actual form of Jesus’ teaching, while John shows greater insight into Jesus as a person.   John writes with a modest vocabulary, but his words are charged with symbolism. Terms like believe, love, truth, world, light and darkness, above and below, name, witness, sin, judgment (eternal) life, glory, bread, water, and hour are the key words of this gospel.   Main Themes

a.	The gospel contains a clear statement of purpose: “These [signs] are written that you may believe that Jesus is the Christ, the Son of God, and that believing you may have life in His name” (John 20:31). John brings out the thought that the sole purpose of life is to know the Father and experience life eternal through faith in the Son.
b.	The Son has come from above to glorify the Father (John 17:1); and He does so in His “hour” (John 12:23; 13:1) through His suffering on the cross.
c.	In the synoptic gospels — Matthew, Mark, and Luke — Jesus utters short sayings. Longer discourses, such as the Sermon on the Mount (Mat 5-7), are either collections of sayings on various themes, or, like (Mat 13), mostly parables. John, on the other hand, records no parables and few of the brief sayings so common to the synoptics. Rather, he expands upon an incident: Nicodemus (John 3), the woman at the well (John 4), the man born blind (John 9), Lazarus (John 11), or footwashing (John 13).
d.	In the first chapter, John introduces Jesus by seven key titles, a perfect echo to the Book of Rev: Word, Lamb of God, Rabbi, Messiah, King of Israel, Son of God, Son of Man.
e.	In his Gospel, John stresses the importance of “believing.” The verb “to believe” is found nearly a hundred times in the gospel.
f.	John does not record Jesus discussing questions of prayer, fasting, almsgiving, swearing, marriage, or wealth as do the other gospels. He rather concentrates on that all-important proof of discipleship — Love.

Outline

John 1:1-18:	Introduction: Jesus, the Word of God
John 1:19-51:	Jesus, the Son of Man and the Son of God
John 2:1 — 4:54:	Teaching though signs, and the new birth
John 5:1-47:	The Son of God
John 6:1-71:	The bread of life
John 7:1 — 10:42:	The Jews’ questions
John 11:1-54:	Resurrection
John 11:55 — 17:26:	The Passover — Jesus and his Father
John 18:1 — 19:42:	Jesus’ death
John 20:1-31:	Jesus’ resurrection
John 21:1-25:	Final words

JOHN, TIMELINE (Xdn 115:47):

The 6 feasts of John’s Gospel:	Other events:
—	1. Baptism, temptations, Cana (John 2:1-11).
2. First passover (John 2:13)	—
—	3. Early Judean ministry (John 3:22-24; 4:1-3), through Samaria (John 4:1-43); John imprisoned.
4. “A feast” (John 5:1) — 2nd passover	—
5. Third passover (John 6:4)	5. Feeding of 5,000 (John 6:1-14)
6. Tabernacles (John 7:2)	—
7. Dedication (John 10:22)	—
—	8. Raising of Lazarus (John 11:1-46)
9. Fourth passover (John 12:1)	—

The scribes and Pharisees wanted a sign from Jesus. True, they had seen his miracles; yet they asked for a definite sign, beyond any doubt, that he was the Messiah. But Jesus answered: “A wicked and adulterous generation asks for a miraculous sign! But none will be given it except the sign of the prophet Jonah” (Mat 12:39, NIV).

The events recorded in the book probably covered only a few months or years at the most. Jonah lived during Jeroboam II’s reign (793-753 BC).

Jesus Christ referred to Jonah as a historical person and to his experience as real (Mat 12:38-42; 16:4; Luke 11:29-32)

Jonah, outline:

1.	Jonah flees his mission: Jon 1:1-17
	a)	Jonah’s commission and flight: Jon 1:1-3
	b)	A storm at sea: Jon 1:4-14
	c)	Cast overboard: Jon 1:15 – 2:1
	d)	Jonah’s prayer of thanksgiving: Jon 2:2-10
2.	Jonah reluctantly fulfills his mission: Jon 3:1- 4:11
	a)	Jonah’s renewed commission and obedience: Jon 3:1-4
	b)	The Ninevites’ repentant appeal to the Lord: Jon 3:5-9
	c)	The Ninevites repentance acknowledged: Jon 3:10 – 4:4
	d)	Jonah’s complaint and rebuke: Jon 4:5-11

See Lesson, Jonah, sign of.

Why Jonah?

Of what significance was Jonah? Why would Jesus choose this rather obscure prophet as the only sign that he was Messiah? He tells them (and us): “As Jonah was three days and three nights in the belly of a huge fish, so the Son of Man will be three days and three nights in the heart of the earth” (v 40).

Jonah was God’s sign to the Ninevites of Assyria, a people who weren’t serving Him. If Jonah had not gone to Nineveh, how would its citizens have heard God’s message? By the LORD’s insistence, it was clear that this task belonged only to Jonah.

We must assume that God had a special purpose in ordering the proclamation of Himself to one of Israel’s enemies. If Nineveh, hearing the word of God, repented through fear of the judgment of heaven, then perhaps wayward Israel would be persuaded to take notice and follow their example, thus saving itself also from the wrath of God.

But Jonah tried to get out of his divinely-appointed task. He recognized that the growing might of Assyria was a threat to be feared. How long would it be before that rising tide of Assyrian expansion swept south to engulf his own land? Then why should he lift a finger or raise a voice to fend off the violent judgment of God upon such a nation?

So, rebellious, and with a certain feeling of self-righteousness and nationalistic pride, Jonah determined to have no part in preaching to Nineveh. In trying to evade his commission, Jonah took a ship and tried to flee from the presence of God (Jon 1:3). “Then the LORD sent a great wind on the sea, and such a violent storm arose that the ship threatened to break up” (v. 4). The sailors tried in vain to save the ship. Jonah was rousted from his sleep in the hold, and implored to explain the circumstances.

All were afraid when Jonah told them he was fleeing from his God, but there was nothing they could do — the ship was sinking. So after beseeching God to forgive them, “they took Jonah and threw him overboard, and the raging sea grew calm” (v 15).

Jonah disappeared under the waves, went down to the bottom, and drowned (Jon 2:5-7). “But the LORD provided a great fish to swallow Jonah, and Jonah was inside the fish three days and three nights” (Jon 1:17).

No one ever expected to see him again. But “the LORD commanded the fish, and it vomited Jonah onto dry land” (Jon 2:10). Truly an amazing sign! But of what?

Why was Jonah saved?

Jonah was not delivered from this three days “grave” just to sit back peacefully and contemplate what had happened to him. He was delivered from death so that he could preach to the Ninevites. And finally (after a more circuitous and eventful journey than any other missionary ever took!), he reached his destination and went to work.

So, simply put, the worth of Jonah as a “sign” to an unbelieving generation was this: A man who had died was now alive! And empowered by God to preach to the Gentiles! What a sign for Israel, the would-be “people of God”. Jesus, the man like Jonah, would be killed by them; but God would raise him from the dead (Acts 2:22-24) — and the gospel which he preached to them, and which they refused, would be preached to the Gentiles (Act 2:39) — who would accept and repent!

That this was the intent of Jesus when citing the “sign” of Jonah is evident in his next words — as recorded by Matthew: Mat 12:41. And then, as if his lesson needed reinforcing, he referred also to another notable Gentile “conversion”: Mat 12:42. Nineveh repented; Jerusalem did not. The queen of Sheba sought wisdom; Jerusalem turned its back on the man who was the wisdom of God personified. Truly, one greater than Jonah, and greater than Solomon, was in their midst; and they were preparing to reject him! The sign of the prophet Jonah was more than a man dead and buried for three days, then resurrected. It was a contrast between the wise and the unwise, the repentant and the unrepentant — with warnings of destruction for those who refused to recognize the greatest prophet of God, Jesus Christ.

Paul’s commentary

Paul deals with this same theme: the repentance of the Gentiles as an object lesson, and as a means of provoking Israel likewise to repent: Rom 11:13-15,24,30,31).

A Last Days repentance

Scripture indicates that there will be a wholesale repentance of Israel in the Last Days (Lev 26:40-42; Deu 4:30; 30:1-7; Joel 2:12-20; Jer 31:17-20; 50:4,5; Mat 23:39; Act 3:19,20; Mat 6:10; Rev 22:17; Mat 24:22). This Last Days repentance will bring back their Messiah to save them from the latter-day “Assyrian”. The lesson from the prophet Jonah will finally have been learned!

“The young Jordan — type of that strange life of ours! Bright and beautiful in its cradle, laughing its merry morning away, through the flowery fields of the Huleh, plunging with the recklessness of youth, into the tangled brakes and muddy marshes of Merom; hurrying thence, full grown, like earnest manhood with its noisy and bustling activities, it subsides at length into life’s somber midday in the placid lake of Gennesaret. When it goes forth again, it is down the inevitable proclivity of old age, sinking deeper and deeper, in spite of doublings and windings innumerable, until finally lost in the bitter sea of death — the melancholy bourne [tomb] from which there is neither escape nor return” (LB 248).

The Dead Sea will be healed by waters from under the altar (Eze 47:8-10).

“Jewish and Middle Eastern non-Jewish populations share a common pool of Y-chromosome biallelic haplotypes.” So states the title of an article published by a team of researchers in the Publications of the National Academy of Sciences, May 2000. (On the internet it may be found at: www.pnas.org/cgi/doi/10.1073/pnas.10115997.)

The article describes genetic research and analysis (at a level of sophistication and scientific exactitude impossible until recently) conducted upon cross sections of men in various Jewish communities (both in Israel and elsewhere) and other non-Jewish Middle Eastern communities. Bypassing all the mathematical data and statistical tables published in the article, we may simply note several of the conclusions:

• The level of genetic divergence among Jewish populations is very low despite their high degree of geographic dispersion. In fact the level of genetic divergence among different Jewish populations is considerably less than that found among other groups in the study. Put in simple terms, the average Jew in London, let us say, shares much more commonality of genetic likeness with the average Jew in North Africa or Israel than he does with his non-Jewish next-door neighbor. (This conclusion provides solid proof of the Biblical assumption that, although scattered among the nations of the earth, the Jews have by and large maintained their racial identity — see, eg, Jer 30:11 — while other ancient peoples have mingled and submerged themselves in one another, until their Bible-era ancestors are largely unidentified and unidentifiable.)

• The extremely close affinity of Jewish and non-Jewish Middle Eastern populations supports the hypothesis of a common Middle Eastern origin. In other words, the average Jew — wherever he lives — shares a greater degree of genetic commonality (and therefore has a higher proportion of common ancestry) with the average Palestinian or Jordanian or Syrian than with other non-Jewish groups outside of the Middle East.

• In summary, the combined results suggest that Jews and Arabs may trace a common ancestry to a Middle Eastern source population about 4,000 years ago!

So… despite their intense hatreds for one another, and their religious differences and rivalries, the Jews and the Arabs are demonstrated to be, genetically-speaking, “cousins”!

Just who are the progenitors of the modern-day Arabs? The answer of Genesis is obvious: Terah was the father of Abraham (Gen 11:26), and the grandfather of Lot (Gen 11:27) — who accompanied his uncle Abraham to the Land of Promise. From Abraham were descended Ishmael (Gen 16:15), and the sons of Keturah (Gen 25:1-4), and — through Isaac — Esau (Gen 25:25), the father of the Edomites (Gen 36:9). From Lot were descended Moab and Ammon (Gen 19:37,38). (Most of the nations of Psa 83, as a matter of fact, are of this lineage.)

But what of the other peoples of the Land of Palestine, the nations mentioned in Gen 15:18-21, who were there when Abraham and Lot first set foot upon the Land — the Amorites and Canaanites and Jebusites and so forth? And what about the Philistines, who arrived in the Land a bit later, but made such an impact upon Israel? Where have these peoples gone? Have they completely disappeared? The simple answer is: they are the Arabs also!

What evidently has happened is that, since the beginning, the (Arab) descendants of Abraham and Lot have intermarried with the Canaanitish peoples (something Isaac and Jacob and the nation of Israel were strictly forbidden to do: Gen 24:3; 28:6,7; Deu 7:1-3; etc) so as to create, over time, a mixed or mongrel people. There are in fact Bible examples of just this sort of mingling of “seed”:

“While he [Ishmael] was living in the Desert of Paran, his mother got a wife for him from Egypt” (Gen 21:21).

“He [Esau] married Judith daughter of Beeri the Hittite [cp Exo 23:23; Jos 1:4], and also Basemath daughter of Elon the Hittite. They were a source of grief to Isaac and Rebekah” (Gen 26:34,35).

Other instances of the Hebrew word “ereb” — signifying “mixed” or “mingled” — related to peoples are:

1. 1Ki 10:15: “all the Arabian kings”.
2. Jer 25:20,24: “the foreign (or ‘mingled’: AV) peoples… the Philistines… all the kings of Arabia, and all the kings of the foreign (mingled) peoples… in the desert”.

3. Jer 50:37: “all the foreigners (or ‘mingled people’: AV) that are in the midst of her [Babylon]…”

4. Eze 30:5: “Ethiopia, and Libya, and Lydia, and all Arabia (or ‘the mingled people’: AV)”.

5. Neh 13:1,3: “Ammonite and Moabite…all who were of foreign descent (or ‘the mixed multitude’: AV)”.

So the “mixed peoples” of the Middle East are the “Arabs” — with blood ties to the original Canaanitish peoples (the ten nations of Gen 15) as well as the corrupted descendants of Abraham (the majority of the nations enumerated in Psa 83).

It stands to reason, therefore, that — whereas the Jews are still a distinct ethnic group, as the genetic study suggests — the other Middle East natives are truly an altogether “mixed” bag, being at the same time the descendants of the Biblical Ishmaelites, Moabites, Ammonites, and Edomites, as well as the Biblical Canaanites, Philistines, Amorites, etc, etc!

It may be impossible today to find a single people who can be conclusively linked with the Edomites, for example [see Appendix], or with the Philistines, or with any other of the ancient Middle Eastern national enemies of Israel. But these ancient bloodlines did not just disappear, and these nations did not simple “evaporate”; instead, they were blended, and blended again, until there emerged a truly “mixed” (or “Arab”) peoples across the whole of the Land of Promise — the “melting pot” descendants of all the tribes and nations of Gen 15 and Psa 83.

So, when the Bible presents us with evidently “Last Days” prophecies that refer to the nations of Genesis (such as Ammon or Moab or Edom or Philistia), we may not be able to identify any single modern nation in the Middle East as the exclusive and pure descendants of that particular ancient nation. But nevertheless we may assume that either: (1) the prophecy refers particularly to the portion of the whole Arab “mixed” race that occupies the same territory as the ancient nation, or (2) the prophecy refers to the whole of the Arab “world”, because the blood of ancient Edomites or Moabites or whoever flows in all their veins, or (3) both!

Both these groups of peoples (the primarily “Hamite” peoples of Gen 15, and the primarily “Semitic” peoples of Psa 83) have demonstrated, historically, intense hatred for the Jews — fulfilling the Old Testament “types”: Ishmael versus Isaac, and Esau versus Jacob, and Canaanite and Philistine versus Israelite. Now, with the admixture of a unifying religion — Islam — these Arabs… whether they live in Jordan, or Lebanon, or Syria, or Saudi Arabia, or the West Bank, or Gaza… all view the Jews as great “infidels”, who have no real claim to the Land of Palestine.

And the stage is set for the final act in a 4,000-year-old drama: the climactic struggle between Jew and Arab, between the modern “Goliath” and the modern “David”, as it were, on the mountains of Israel.

Appendix: Edomites and Nabataeans

It has sometimes been suggested that Old Testament prophecies about Edom, for example, cannot be fulfilled by any modern nation or nations — because there are simply no surviving descendants of the ancient Edomites today. But a scholarly study suggests very much the opposite. J.R. Bartlett, writing in the Palestine Exploration Quarterly 111 (1979), (“From Edomites to Nabataeans: A Study in Continuity”), does not believe that the Edomites became extinct, as some assert. Rather, he offers considerable evidence — archaeological, cultural, and linguistic, as well as historical — to the effect that the ancient Edomites, being overrun and dominated by the Nabataeans (the descendants of the Biblical Nebaioth: Gen 25:13), simply survived by intermarrying with their conquerors to produce a new people: a mixture of Nabataean and Edomite which survives to this day in the Bedouin Arabs.

For more than one hundred years this question has been before the Brotherhood: Did Jephthah actually sacrifice his only daughter, or did here merely dedicate her to a celibate service, perhaps at the Tabernacle? The earliest discussion of the subject of which I am aware occurs in the 1875 Christadelphian, in a brief article by JJ Andrew (Vol 12, May, pp 236,237). It is a measure of the “popularity” of this debate that there are no less than 32 separate articles — and these in the Christadelphian and Testimony magazines along — over the intervening 105 years. A fuller index of other periodicals would surely increase this number considerably. (One is tempted to inquire if a like number of words have been written on many other subjects of far more importance).

There has never been a Christadelphian “party line” on the question. In such respects as this our community compares very favorably with others, such as “Jehovah’s Witnesses” — who make a great show of devotion to individual Bible study, but who scarcely, if ever, deviate from the official interpretation of “headquarters” on any subject? A review of our writings on Jephthah’s vow, just as one minor example, reveals a great stress on private, personal, independent thinking along Scriptural lines. Surely it is a small price to pay for our community’s freedom from “learning by rote” that, once in a while, a question of secondary importance is allowed to overlap the bounds of “cut-and-dried”, canned (or “potted” — for the English) reasoning.

Robert Roberts is first on one side, then the other, of this subject. [His last thought on the subject favors the death of Jephthah’s daughter (Law of Moses, 1984 edition, pp 290,291) — but his argument is very brief and far from air-tight.] And CC Walker follows him in the same course — first favoring a dedication and then vacillating between the two and finally expressing “no doubt that Jephthah’s daughter was really slain in sacrifice” [Xd 64 (Jan 1927), p 28]. But his defense of that view seems curiously flippant, as, for example, his question: “What is a daughter more or less?” (Ibid, Feb, p 77) — certainly not designed to win the sisters over to his view, to say the least! Then, “making all due allowances”, as he expresses it, he reproduces a portion of a Tennyson poem which catches the “spirit of the maiden” — in which the poet sees her coming in a vision and then returning “toward the morning star”! (Ibid, p 86). Not much “proof” in that, certainly!

The next editor of the magazine, John Carter, weighs in on the other side of the issue, with an article by G. Buckler to the effect that the girl’s life was not taken — to which he appends his own note of approval [Xd, Vol 78 (June 1941), pp 260,261].

The Testimony Magazine also presents, at different times, both views. PH Adams, for years the editor of “First Stages” and then the “Problems” sections, has a real “problem” with this question! Issue after issue, he advances and repeats arguments for sacrifice instead of devotion — but his readers (if one may judge by the printed response) are overwhelmingly of the other school of thought. So, patiently and with good humor, he answers as best he can their objections. Reading these exchanges (In Volumes 11, 12, 13, 22, 23, and 27) is certainly a good lesson in the fine art of “disagreeing without being disagreeable”, something most of us could do with more of!

One of the most curious contributions on the subject is a “Trial in the Court of Historical Research” — before “Lord Penetrating Impartiality” (in the style of Robert Roberts’ “The Trial: Did Christ Rise from the Dead?”). Both sides of the question are argued out at length by counsels with such names as “Noble Acceptor-of-all-Truth”, after which the reader is left to decide for himself (Testimony, Vol 28 (April, 1958), pp 121-127).

What are the arguments, pro and con? The following is a summary of the more cogent points in favor of each side, for the benefit of those who do not have access to back numbers of our periodicals:

First, in favor of the theory that Jephthah did indeed offer his daughter as a burnt offering:

1. We cannot say that anything God does or allows is inconsistent with His declared character. It is not for us to sit in judgment of Him.

2. This view was never called in question by Jew or Christian until about 1200 AD. The Septuagint and Vulgate — and Josephus — have always conveyed the idea of a literal sacrifice.

3. Just because Jephthah is elsewhere described as a righteous man does not mean everything he did was righteous! To believe that he offered up his daughter does not require believing that he was right in doing so!

4. The AV text (if not the margin), RV, RSV, and most other versions favor the “and” in v 31 — giving strong support to the idea that the vow called for the burnt offering of whatever or whoever came out first, since (no matter how we understand its terms) it is beyond any doubt that Jephthah did perform his vow (v 39).

5. Would Jephthah’s sorrow have been so overwhelming, and would an annual memorial have been called for, if the only “fate” his daughter suffered was perpetual virginity and service at the Tabernacle?

And, secondly, for the alternate theory:

1. Human sacrifice was expressly forbidden by God (Deu 12:30,31; Psalm 106:37,38; Isa 66:3; Jer 32:34,35).

2. Jephthah, being one who “wrought righteousness” and “obtained a good report through faith” (Heb 11:32,33-39), can hardly be expected to have been so seriously ignorant of what was and was not acceptable to God in this matter. It is very improbable that a man like that would make a vow that would likely call for him to do something which the Law expressly forbade.

3. The “vow” Jephthah made (Jdg 11:30) was a “nadar” — for which the Law allowed the possibility of redemption upon payment of money. (Lev 27:1,8). Considering this, it is almost unthinkable that the distraught father would not have availed himself of this “escape” if the vow had meant death for his daughter. (The Hebrew for “devoted” things, which could not be redeemed, was “cherem”, as in Lev 27:29, but that word does not appear in this narrative.

4. “Whatsoever” of v 31 can be translated “whosoever”, as applying to persons. This is a reference, probably, to the custom of women coming out to meet victorious warriors, with timbrels and dancing (v 34). The women who met David returning from battle (1Sa 18:6) and Miriam also (Exo 15:20) were following this custom. It seems very unlikely that Jephthah would have been vowing to put to death “whomsoever” of the young men or women came out first, as he would surely have realized beforehand how likely it would have been for a human rather than an animal to come out first!

5. “I will offer it up” (v 31) can be translated “I will offer Him (ie, God) a burnt offering” — making the pronoun masculine, with God the One to whom the offering was to be made.

6. “And I will offer it up”: The AV margin suggests “or” (though the preponderance of translations favors “and”), so that Jephthah may be expressing an alternative; ie, If a person comes out first, he or she shall be dedicated to God, or if an animal comes out first (and if it possesses the suitable qualities) it will be sacrificed as a burnt offering.

7. If there had been any illegality in the vow, that is, if in fact the outcome had been a human sacrifice, then someone like Jephthah — who feared God — would have had good reason to forbid the breaking of His law.

8. The burnt offering of the damsel, if such it was, would have to be carried out be a priest at the Tabernacle — who would then be knowingly participating in an improper offering and a criminal act!

9. Furthermore, the specific rules of the burnt offering (Lev 1:1-17,7:8) provided that a male be offered, the skin to belong to the priests, and the blood to be sprinkled round the altar!

10. In lamenting her misfortune, Jephthah’s daughter did not bewail the loss of life; she simply bewailed her “virginity”. This deprivation of the opportunity to bear children was considered a great calamity among Jews, and would be especially hard to bear for Jephthah also — since he was an important man in Israel and she was an only child. The word “lament” (Hebrew “lethanoth”) in v 40 is not the common word for such, which would have been most appropriate if the grief of death were intended. Instead, it is a word which can have the meaning “to rehearse” or “to talk with” — as the margin shows. It is used only here and in Judges 5:11, where the daughters of Israel retell and celebrate the righteous acts of God. The young women evidently went up to the Tabernacle to talk with Jephthah’s daughter year by year.

11. “She knew no man” (v 39) seems foolishly redundant if she were put to death. It rather seems to express her entering upon a state of complete dedication to Yahweh — in some special service. (Compare Hannah offering Samuel during the same period). Though similar to Roman Catholic nuns and “holy orders”, such a dedication should not be objected to on that score alone, since this would be a dedication in truth, not error. Paul says that the unmarried may more easily care for the things of God (1Co 7:34). Such an order of virgins devoted to Tabernacle and Temple service is at least implied in such passages as Lam 1:4 and Exo 38:8.

12. It is not explicitly stated that she was actually offered — which is rather remarkable in so singular a case. This seems so unusual an omission that even the commentators who favor the idea of sacrifice are compelled to admit that a “veil” is drawn over the actual bloodshedding. But is it not more reasonable to assume that there was nothing in the narrative so embarrassing to Jephthah’s character that a veil was even needed?

***

A quick reading of the points compiled above might seem to favor one opinion over the other by sheer weight of numbers. But no doubt much could be said in rebuttal of various points on either side. It is possible that this writer’s leanings are by now obvious, but he has made a conscious effort to state fairly the arguments for both sides. This is of course not a matter of “first principle” consequence, so perhaps the best conclusion is this:

“Prove all things; hold fast that which is good”.

The book of Job contains such long and involved speeches that it is often hard to see the overall development of the book. In this summary, written as a play, each chapter of Job is distilled down to a paragraph or so. It helps to be able to see the structure and development of thought in the book, and then to go back to better appreciate the full text of Scripture. (Chapters are in parentheses.)

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  Narrator: Long ago, Job was one of the richest men alive, yet he was blameless and honest, and a priest to his family. But one day in the assembly, the accuser challenged God. He claimed that Job was righteous only because God had blessed him so much. To prove otherwise, God stripped Job of everything: his possessions, his servants, even his children. Suddenly all was gone. Job was devastated, but he remained faithful and humble. “The Lord gave,” he said, “and now the Lord has taken away. Praise be to his name.” (1)   The accuser was not convinced. “You never hurt Job himself,” he accused God. “Do so, and he will certainly curse you!”   So Job was afflicted with disease. Covered in festering sores from head to foot, he wasted away. But even when his wife scorned him saying, “Curse God and die, Job,” his attitude remained, “Shall we accept good from God, and not trouble?”   And so Job did not sin.   Job had three friends, Eliphaz, Bildad, and Zophar, who heard about his troubles. They came to comfort him, but when they arrived, they found him so disfigured they hardly recognized him! They sat in silence, grieving for him for the ritual week of mourning until, finally, Job broke the silence. (2)   Job: I curse the day I was born! If only I had died at birth! Then at least I would be at rest. Even captives and slaves find release in death, yet my life still goes on! I long for death, but it doesn’t come. Oh why does life continue for those in misery?   This is my worst nightmare! I’ve always been afraid that something like this might happen! I have no peace, no rest, only turmoil. (3)   Eliphaz: Job, I really must respond. Don’t be offended at me. You used to be blameless. That at least should give you some hope. Whatever God is punishing you for, there’s no need to despair.   I learnt in a vision that no one is truly righteous before God, so don’t become resentful now. God certainly punishes the fool and destroys his family, but if it were me, I would appeal to God. Even though he punishes wickedness, he also heals those who accept his discipline. Who knows, before long you’ll be laughing, secure in a new household, living out the fullness of your life. Just apply the lesson to yourself. (4,5)   Job: My words were rash, but I am suffering unimaginable terrors from God. I wish he would finish me off, then at least I would know I had been faithful to the end. As for you: a man should be able to rely on his friends. But you see something dreadful and you speak from your fear. Your words are useless to me.   If you can teach me then I’ll listen, but you must accept that I never departed from my righteous ways. God has appointed a time of misery for me, so now my body is clothed in worms and scabs, and my skin is festering.

  Oh God, life is so short that I must speak out. I would prefer strangling and death to this body of mine! Why do you examine a man so closely? Why do you never give me a moment’s rest? If I have sinned then tell me now, for my life will soon be gone! (6,7)   Bildad: You’re being ridiculous, Job! God is just! When your children sinned, God handed out their penalty. And if you are so pure then God will restore you, but listen to what the fathers have told us. It is those who reject God that are cut down in their prime! God does not reject a blameless man! (8)   Job: I know that no one is truly righteous before God. The wisdom and power of the Creator are so vast, so utterly beyond us. No one can call him to explain himself. He controls the sun and the stars. He performs innumerable miracles and wonders. None of us could possibly stand up in his courtroom and dispute with him. If I tried I could only plead for mercy. This is why I say that God destroys both the blameless and the wicked.   And now, even if I dropped my complaint, I would still dread my sufferings because you have already condemned me! If only there were someone who was able to speak to God on my behalf, to remove his terror from me. Then I could stand up to God, and I would challenge him.   O God, what charges do you have against me? Do you enjoy seeing me suffer? You know my heart. You shaped me from the dust. Are you going to return me to the dust again? I cannot lift up my head because of what you’ve done to me. Leave me alone, and let me die in peace! (9,10)   [pause]   Zophar: Is no one going to respond? Job, you claim to be innocent, but I reckon that God has even forgotten some of your sins! God is greater than you can conceive, so when God chastises you, you cannot challenge him. He reacts to the evil he has witnessed. If only you would put away your sin you could lift up your head without shame. Then God would rescue you. He would protect you for the rest of your life. But the hope of the wicked is nothing more than a dying gasp. (11)   Job: Oh, you’re all so wise! But I have a mind as well! Previously God used to answer me when I called, yet now I suffer your contempt! Men at ease have contempt for misfortune. And the wicked? They live in comfort! Yes, and it is God who makes it so!   However great we are, God is greater. He is able to tear down anyone he has established, whether kings or priests or judges, elders or nobles. I’ve seen all this with my own eyes. And yet, you smear me with lies, you useless healers! I wish you would remain silent rather than distort God’s work. How will you fare when his dread falls on you? Your words are proverbs made from ashes.   [Eliphaz tries to interrupt]   No! Let me finish.   Even if God slays me I will still hope in him, and still defend myself before him. Can anyone honestly condemn me? If so I will be silent and die.   Oh God, let me have a little rest, and then I will answer you. Show me my offence. Show me my sin, because I’m rotting away to nothing. You know that man is a fleeting shadow. Cut him down and he does not rise again. To the end of creation he lies in the dust.   Oh if only you would hide me in the grave, hide me until your anger has passed, until a time comes to remember me.. Yes, I will wait. I will wait for my renewal. You will call and I will answer you. You will see the steps I’ve taken. And you will throw away my sins like a bag of rubbish. Oh, but you’re wearing me down. You’re destroying this man’s hope through the pain of his body… (12-14)   [Pause, to be sure Job has finished]   Eliphaz: You windbag! Your own mouth condemns you, and your words undermine devotion to God. How come you know so much about him? Do you sit in his council?   Oh Job. How come your heart has carried you away so that your eyes flash with anger at God? Even the heavens are not pure enough for God, much less man. Ask any wise man, or any of the fathers. It is a wicked man that God takes from comfort and security to plunge into distress and anguish. His strength is useless because God will pay him in full before his time. (15)   Job: I’ve heard all this before, you miserable comforters! Why don’t you cease? If we changed places then I would encourage and comfort you. Instead, not only do I suffer at the hand of God, but you jeer and sneer at me. God has devastated my family and destroyed my flesh. My face is red with weeping, even though my hands are free from violence, and my prayers pure. My blood cries out from the ground. Even now my account is in heaven. If only there were someone to plead with God on my behalf, as a man pleads for his friend. Instead, I’m about to die and I’m surrounded by mockers, bearing the brunt of your hostility. (16)   O God, you are the only one who can save me!   But God has made me a byword, a man in whose face people spit, a man to shock the upright. So come on then. Try again. But I’ll get no wisdom from you. Death is my best option now. (17)   Bildad: Be sensible, Job. Why do you call us stupid? You’re just tearing yourself to pieces in your anger. It is the lamp of the wicked that is snuffed out. Calamity overcomes him, eats away at his skin, and strips him of his children so that his memory is lost from the land. This is the fate of an evil man. (18)   Job: How long will you torment me with words? If indeed you would exalt yourselves above me, then let me tell you that God has wronged me! God caught me in his net and alienated me from my relatives, from my friends, and even from my wife. Those I love have turned away from me. My breath is sour and I am nothing but skin and bones. Have pity on me, my friends, and stop hounding me.   How I wish my words were written down. I know that my redeemer lives, and that in the end he will stand on the earth. Then I will awake. I will see God with my own eyes — I and not another.   But you. You should fear the sword yourselves. Then you will know that there is judgment. (19)   Zophar: Again I must speak. You disturb and dishonor me by your rebuke. You must know that, from the beginning, the joy of the wicked is brief. In his pride he reaches for the heavens, but he is banished like a dream and his children must make up for his evil. Though he revels in oppression, terrors will overcome him. The heavens will expose his guilt and God’s wrath will consume him. (20)   Job: Let me try once more, then you can continue to mock me. Despite openly rejecting God, the wicked enjoy prosperity. Their children still grow up and sing to the music of tambourine and harp. Be honest. How often is the lamp of the wicked snuffed out? Instead, two men lie down in the dust of death, side by side, one lived in security and plenty, while the other died in bitterness, never having enjoyed anything good.   I know what you’re thinking, that I bear all the marks of punishment for sin. But just travel a little and you will see that evil men are spared calamity. So how can you console me with your nonsense? (21)   Eliphaz: So God is punishing you for your righteousness! Job, the list of your sins is endless! You stripped your own brothers naked, you gave no water to the weary, no food to the hungry. You sent widows away empty handed, and you worked orphans into the ground. You wonder whether God sees you, but he does. Why continue in wickedness? Even now, Job, submit to God, and you will be restored and light will shine on your ways. You will then be able to save others likewise. (22)   Job: Look, if only I knew where to find God I would state my case before him, and he would listen! But I can’t find him anywhere, even though I treasured his words more than my daily bread. He remains aloof and unreachable. (23)   I wish that God would indeed set times for judgment. Terrible injustices occur, but God charges no one with wrongdoing. Men prey on the needy and the destitute. They murder, they creep around in adultery. You say that God is bound to bring them low, but he does not. You cannot contradict that. (24)   Bildad: God is a God of order, and of power, and of righteousness! But man? He is a maggot! (25)   Job: How you have helped me! What great wisdom! God is so far above our understanding. How can any of us explain his acts? (26)   As long as I live I will not speak wickedness, and neither will I deny my integrity. Hypocrisy would completely cut me off from God. (27)   You have seen God’s ways, so why do you speak such rubbish. Why do you say that suffering is allotted only to the wicked, that only the children of the wicked die by the sword or go hungry, that it is only the wicked that are blown away? Where can true wisdom be found? You can’t mine it out of the ground, or purchase it with gold. God alone knows where it is, and so He tells man, “Fear the Lord — that is wisdom.” (28)   I long for the days when God’s intimate friendship blessed my house. I was respected in the city. I helped the poor. I rescued orphans. I acted as eyes to the blind, and as feet to the lame. I helped the needy, and broke the fangs of their exploiters. I expected to live peaceful to a ripe old age. But now? Instead of hanging on my every word, they mock me, mere youths! They detest me and spit in my face. (29)   I am frightened. My life ebbs away. Pains gnaw at my bones and God throws me in the mud. Even though I cry out to him he tosses me into the storm. I used to weep for those in trouble, but when it was my turn to hope for good, evil came. (30)   I kept myself from sin because I know God watches my every step. If I am guilty — and if God would weigh me honestly he would know I am not — then indeed let others eat my food. If I am an adulterer then let them take my wife from me; if I have denied any charity then indeed let my body be broken. But how could I have denied justice to others when I know that God is the Judge who formed us all?   If I had trusted in wealth, that would be sin; or if I gloated over my enemy or cursed him; or if I had not shown hospitality; or if I had hidden sin in my heart — whatever it is let my accuser declare it so that I can answer him — or if I had devoured land without payment then, certainly, let briers come up instead of barley. (31)   That’s all I have to say.   [A young man, Elihu, has been listening. After realizing that no one is going to respond to Job, he bursts out]   Elihu: I’m younger than you elders so I kept quiet, but age doesn’t give wisdom, God does. You have utterly failed to answer Job, so now let me speak before I burst! And I can assure you I have no intention of flattering anyone! Job, I ask you to listen to me. I’m a man just like yourself. I heard you claim to be sinless, and accuse God for faulting you. You have no right to say such things. Why do you strive against God? He uses visions and events, even chastenings, to turn a man from his pride, providing a messenger to teach him. And not just once, he will do so again and again. (32)   Listen to me, Job! If you have anything to say, then say it, but otherwise let me teach you wisdom. Listen to me all of you, and let us discern together what is right. Job claims that God denies him justice, and even claims that there is no value in serving God! But it is unthinkable that God would do wrong. It is he who gives men their very breath, and is able to take it away in an instant, however great and noble they are. Would you really condemn God in his justice? He can judge without trial because he watches men even in secret, but whether he punishes or remains silent is for him to decide. Wise men say that Job speaks out of ignorance, and now he adds rebellion to his sin. (33)   Job, you claim that God will clear your name. But at the same time you also imply you get no benefit by avoiding sin! It’s actually the other way around! How can you possibly affect the Great Creator by either your righteousness or your sin? It is only other people who would suffer your wickedness. If God is prepared to close his ears to the cries of the wicked, how much more will he ignore your self-righteous indignation. Job is an ignorant babbler. (34,35)   Bear with me a little longer. There’s more to be said on God’s behalf, and through his inspiration I will speak. Even though God is mighty, he doesn’t despise men, but he does use suffering to turn people from evil. The godless resent this, and refuse to respond. Now that you are laden with the judgment of the wicked, beware of turning to evil as a means of escaping affliction.   [The sky begins to darken with an approaching storm]

  God is the ultimate teacher, with powers and abilities far beyond our understanding. He forms the rain, the clouds, and thunder. Look! See how his lightning flashes around. This is the power he uses to govern the nations! (36)   [Thunder crashes. Elihu shouts to be heard as the noise continues to increase]   Listen to the roar of his voice! It makes my heart pound! God works throughout the whole world; he does great things beyond our understanding. He sends rain and snow, stopping men from their labor, and sending the animals to their dens. He brings clouds both to punish, and to water the earth in love. Listen Job! Stop and consider God’s wonders. Can you match his power? Can you really expect to call him to account? We can’t even stare at the sun in its brightness. (37)   And now! Here is God coming! God who is beyond our reach, and is full of justice and righteousness! This is why men revere him. And in turn he cares for those who are wise in heart.   [The storm is upon them. God speaks from the whirling cloud]

  The Lord: Who is this who darkens my counsel with ignorant words? Brace yourself, Job. I’m calling you to account!   Where were you when I laid the foundation of the earth? Who marked off its dimensions? Surely you know! Who shut up the sea behind doors, and wrapped the sky in clouds? Have you given orders to the morning, or walked on the bed of the sea? Have the gates of death been shown to you, or even the storehouses of hail and snow? But you are so wise! You have lived so many years!

  What about the stars, great Orion and the Bear and other constellations? Can you guide them in season? You can’t even count them! Can you control the clouds and the lightning? Perhaps you feed the lioness or the raven, or maybe you help the mountain goats give birth? Perhaps you know why the ostrich is so foolish, or the horse so strong? Is it your wisdom that allows the hawk to fly and to hunt, or the eagle to soar? You wanted to wrestle with me, Job, so now I want an answer from you. (38,39)   Job: I am unworthy. I cannot answer you.   The Lord: Brace yourself, Job. I want an answer. Would you discredit my justice, or condemn me in order to justify yourself? If you have power like mine then use it. Bring the proud man down! Bury him in the dust with the wicked! If you can do this, then I will admit that you can save yourself.   I made a mighty beast when I made you. His great bones are brass and iron. He exercises dominion over the works of God, demanding tribute from the other beasts. The raging flood is nothing to him. Can anyone take him with hooks, or trap him in a snare? What about it, Job? Can you tie him down? Will he make a lasting covenant with you? Will you make him your plaything when he terrifies you?   It is in my mercy that I allow him to plague mankind, but I limit him, despite all his boasting about his teeth, his armor, his breath setting coals ablaze. The mighty are terrified before him, and neither sword nor spear has any effect on him. He makes the deep sea boil, and he is a beast without fear. With his heaven-confronting eyes, he is king of the proud. (40,41)   Job: I know that you can do all things. No one can oppose you. I did not really understand before. Now that I have seen you I despise myself. I repent in dust and ashes.   [God turns to Eliphaz]   The Lord: Eliphaz, I am furious with you and your two friends because you spoke lies about me. But if you bring sacrifices, my servant Job will pray for you, and I will listen to him and not deal with you according to your foolish ideas.   Narrator: So Job prayed for his friends, and the Lord accepted his prayer. Afterwards, the Lord made Job prosperous again, giving him twice as much as he had before. Everyone who knew him came to him and gave him gifts. He also had seven sons and three beautiful daughters. Job lived long enough to see his great grandchildren. And when he finally died, he was old and full of years. (42) (JL)